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Familial paroxysmal kinesigenic dyskinesia (PKD) is a rare genetic condition characterized by sudden, brief, and episodic movements or convulsions. PKD was first identified and described by Tian et al. and Zeng et al. in 1997, and since then, more information about the condition and its genetic inheritance pattern has been learned through scientific research studies.

PKD is typically inherited in an autosomal dominant manner, meaning that a person with the condition has a 50% chance of passing it on to their children. Several genes have been identified as causes of PKD, including the PRRT2 gene. Genetic testing can be done to confirm a diagnosis of PKD and identify the specific gene mutation responsible.

PKD is associated with altered brain function and can cause choreoathetosis, a condition characterized by involuntary, jerky, and twisting movements. The frequency and severity of the episodes can vary between individuals, with some experiencing a few episodes per day and others experiencing only a few episodes per year. The exact mechanisms underlying PKD are not fully understood, and further research is needed to unravel its complexities.

For patients and families affected by PKD, there are resources available for support, advocacy, and additional information. OMIM, the Online Mendelian Inheritance in Man catalog, provides a comprehensive database of genetic disorders and associated genes. PubMed, a scientific research database, offers access to published studies and articles on PKD and related diseases.

In conclusion, familial paroxysmal kinesigenic dyskinesia is a rare genetic condition characterized by episodic movements or convulsions. Genetic studies have identified several genes associated with PKD, and further research is needed to understand the underlying mechanisms of the condition. Patients and families can find more information and support through resources such as OMIM and PubMed.

Frequency

Familial paroxysmal kinesigenic dyskinesia (PKD) is a rare episodic movement disorder that affects the patient’s ability to control their movements. It is characterized by sudden, brief episodes of involuntary movements, such as choreoathetosis or dystonia, which are often triggered by sudden movements or excitement.

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According to OMIM, PKD has a prevalence of approximately 1 in 150,000 individuals worldwide. The exact frequency of PKD may vary among different populations and ethnic groups.

The frequency of PKD has been studied in various articles and research studies. Genetic testing has identified several genes associated with PKD, including PRRT2, SCN1A, and PNKD, among others. Some studies suggest that PRRT2 mutations are the most common cause of PKD, accounting for around 50% of cases.

Other rare causes of PKD include mutations in the SLITRK1 and CACNA1B genes. It is important to note that not all individuals with PKD have an identifiable genetic mutation, suggesting that other genetic or environmental factors may also play a role in the development of this condition.

The inheritance pattern of PKD can vary. Some cases are inherited in an autosomal dominant manner, meaning that a person has a 50% chance of inheriting the condition if one of their parents is affected. In other cases, the inheritance pattern may be unclear or involve other genetic factors.

PKD is often misdiagnosed as other movement disorders or epilepsy, as some individuals may also experience convulsions during episodes. It is important for healthcare professionals to consider PKD as a possible diagnosis when evaluating patients with episodic movement disorders.

Additional information and support for PKD can be found through various resources, such as advocacy organizations, clinical trials databases (ClinicalTrials.gov), and scientific publications. The Genetic and Rare Diseases Information Center (GARD) provides information and support for individuals and families affected by rare diseases, including PKD.

References:

  1. Gardner RJ, Konyer NB. Paroxysmal nonkinesigenic dyskinesia. In: Adam MP, Ardinger HH, Pagon RA, et al., editors. GeneReviews® [Internet]. Seattle (WA): University of Washington, Seattle; 1993-2021. Available from: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK138853/.
  2. Shen Y, et al. Mutations in PNKD causing paroxysmal dyskinesia alters protein cleavage and stability. Hum Mol Genet. 2011;20(12):2322-32.

Causes

Familial paroxysmal kinesigenic dyskinesia (PKD) is a rare condition characterized by episodic, involuntary movements. It is usually inherited in an autosomal dominant pattern, meaning that only one copy of the altered gene is needed to cause the condition. Several genes have been associated with PKD, including PRRT2, SCN1A, and KMT2C.

Research studies published on PubMed have provided more information about the genetic causes of PKD. The frequency of these genes in PKD patients varies, and additional research is needed to fully understand their role in the condition.

The Online Mendelian Inheritance in Man (OMIM) database also contains information about the genetic causes of PKD. OMIM catalogs genes associated with various diseases and provides information on their inheritance patterns and clinical characteristics.

Genetic testing can be done to identify these genes in individuals with PKD. This can provide more information about the specific genetic cause of their condition and help guide treatment decisions.

In rare cases, PKD can also be caused by other factors such as altered metabolism or certain medications. It is important for healthcare providers to consider these potential causes and conduct thorough evaluations to ensure accurate diagnosis and appropriate treatment.

Advocacy organizations and support groups, such as the International Paroxysmal Kinesigenic Dyskinesia Center, can provide additional resources and information for individuals and families affected by PKD.

For more information about PKD, including ongoing research studies and clinical trials, visit ClinicalTrials.gov.

Learn more about the genes associated with Familial paroxysmal kinesigenic dyskinesia

Familial paroxysmal kinesigenic dyskinesia (PKD) is a rare condition characterized by episodic, involuntary movements triggered by sudden movements or changes in position. This condition is also known as paroxysmal kinesigenic choreoathetosis (PKC) as it often presents with both choreic and athetoid movements.

Scientific studies have identified several genes associated with Familial PKD, including PRRT2, ADCY5, and MR-1. Mutations in these genes have been found in a significant number of affected individuals, indicating their importance in the development and manifestation of the condition.

See also  CYP27A1 gene

If you are interested in learning more about the genes associated with Familial PKD, there are resources available to provide additional information and support. The Genetic and Rare Diseases Information Center (GARD) offers articles and resources on Familial PKD and other rare diseases. In addition, the National Library of Medicine’s PubMed and OMIM databases provide scientific research articles and genetic information related to this condition.

ClinicalTrials.gov is another valuable resource for information on current research and clinical trials related to Familial PKD and other movement disorders. This can provide insights into potential treatment options and advancements in the field.

If you or someone you know is affected by Familial PKD, it may be beneficial to undergo genetic testing to confirm the diagnosis and identify the specific gene mutation causing the condition. This information can be crucial for understanding the inheritance pattern of the condition within the family and may guide treatment decisions.

In conclusion, learning more about the genes associated with Familial PKD can provide valuable insights into the causes and clinical manifestations of this rare condition. By staying informed and accessing available resources, individuals and families affected by Familial PKD can better understand the condition and seek appropriate medical care and support.

Inheritance

Familial paroxysmal kinesigenic dyskinesia (PKD) is a rare genetic condition that is known to have an autosomal dominant inheritance pattern. This means that if one parent has the condition, there is a 50% chance of passing it on to each of their children.

Studies have shown that the frequency of PKD in the general population is estimated to be around 1 in 150,000 individuals. However, this frequency may be higher in certain populations due to founder effects or increased awareness of the condition.

The condition was first described by Tian et al. in 1997. Since then, research has provided more information about the genetic causes and clinical characteristics of PKD. Mutations in the PRRT2 gene have been identified as the most common cause of familial PKD, accounting for up to 80% of cases. Additional genes may also be involved, but further research is needed to fully understand their role in the condition.

Genetic testing can be used to confirm a diagnosis of familial PKD, and is recommended for individuals with a suspected or confirmed diagnosis. Testing can help identify specific genetic changes that are associated with the condition.

Clinical symptoms of PKD typically include sudden, brief episodes of involuntary movements, such as choreoathetosis or dystonia, that are triggered by sudden movements or changes in position. These episodes can be accompanied by altered consciousness or convulsions in some cases.

More information about familial PKD can be found in scientific articles and resources such as OMIM, PubMed, and the Genetic and Rare Diseases Information Center (GARD). Additional support and advocacy resources for individuals and families affected by PKD may also be available.

References:
1. Shen Q, Zeng Q, He J, et al. Familial paroxysmal kinesigenic dyskinesia: from phenotype to gene to clinic. Sci China Life Sci. 2010;53(9):1093-1101. doi:10.1007/s11427-010-4089-7
2. Genetic and Rare Diseases Information Center (GARD). Familial paroxysmal kinesigenic dyskinesia. https://rarediseases.info.nih.gov/diseases/5683/familial-paroxysmal-kinesigenic-dyskinesia. Accessed October 25, 2021.
3. Gardiner AR, Bhatia KP, Stamelou M, et al. PRRT2 gene mutations: from paroxysmal dyskinesia to episodic ataxia and hemiplegic migraine. Neurology. 2012;79(21):2115-2121. doi:10.1212/WNL.0b013e3182749d35
4. PubMed. Familial paroxysmal kinesigenic dyskinesia. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/?term=familial+paroxysmal+kinesigenic+dyskinesia. Accessed October 25, 2021.

Other Names for This Condition

Other names for familial paroxysmal kinesigenic dyskinesia include:

  • Kinesigenic choreoathetosis with episodic ataxia
  • Paroxysmal kinesigenic choreoathetosis
  • Parkinsonism, infantile, with seizures
  • Familial paroxysmal nonkinesigenic dyskinesia

These additional names reflect the altered movements and episodic convulsions associated with this rare genetic condition. Familial paroxysmal kinesigenic dyskinesia is known with different names in scientific literature and clinical resources.

Some of the more common names for this condition that you may come across include:

  • PKD
  • PKC
  • PKN
  • Infantile parkinsonism
  • Kinesigenic dyskinesias

These names are often used interchangeably to refer to the same condition. It is important to note that while the exact frequency and pattern of inheritance for familial paroxysmal kinesigenic dyskinesia is still being researched, it is considered a rare genetic condition.

The OMIM catalog of human genes and genetic disorders provides more information about the genes associated with familial paroxysmal kinesigenic dyskinesia, as well as additional resources for testing and research. PubMed is another valuable resource for finding scientific articles and studies about this condition.

Support and advocacy organizations like the Tian and Shen Center for Research and Clinical Advancement can provide additional information and support for patients and families affected by familial paroxysmal kinesigenic dyskinesia.

Citation:

  1. Gardiner AR, et al. (2015). KMT2B-Associated Early-Onset Parkinsonism. Oficial Journal of the American Academy of Neurology. 10.1212/WNL.0000000000001992.

References:

  1. Gardiner AR, et al. (2015). KMT2B-Associated Early-Onset Parkinsonism. Oficial Journal of the American Academy of Neurology. 10.1212/WNL.0000000000001992.

Information from clinicaltrials.gov:

  1. Gardiner AR, et al. (2015). KMT2B-Associated Early-Onset Parkinsonism. Oficial Journal of the American Academy of Neurology. 10.1212/WNL.0000000000001992.

Additional Information Resources

  • OMIM (Online Mendelian Inheritance in Man): OMIM provides information on the genetic condition familial paroxysmal kinesigenic dyskinesia, including the genes associated with this condition and the inheritance pattern. Learn more about familial paroxysmal kinesigenic dyskinesia on OMIM.
  • PubMed: PubMed is a database of scientific articles and research studies. A search for “familial paroxysmal kinesigenic dyskinesia” can provide more information about the clinical features, genes, and other causes associated with this condition. Search for articles about familial paroxysmal kinesigenic dyskinesia on PubMed.
  • ClinicalTrials.gov: ClinicalTrials.gov provides information about ongoing research studies and clinical trials related to familial paroxysmal kinesigenic dyskinesia. Learn more about clinical trials on familial paroxysmal kinesigenic dyskinesia.
  • Foundation for Genetic Rare Diseases (GARD): GARD offers information and resources for patients and families affected by genetic rare diseases, including familial paroxysmal kinesigenic dyskinesia. Visit the GARD website for more information.
  • Zeng Lab: The Zeng Lab at Emory University studies movement disorders and the underlying genetic causes, including familial paroxysmal kinesigenic dyskinesia. Learn more about their research on familial paroxysmal kinesigenic dyskinesia.

Genetic Testing Information

Familial paroxysmal kinesigenic dyskinesia (FPKD) is a rare condition characterized by episodic involuntary movements. The condition is often inherited, with an autosomal dominant pattern of inheritance. To learn more about this condition and its genetic causes, the following sources of information can be helpful:

  • OMIM (Online Mendelian Inheritance in Man): OMIM provides a catalog of genes and genetic disorders, including FPKD. It offers detailed information about the altered genes associated with FPKD.
  • PubMed: PubMed is a scientific research database that contains articles from scientific journals. By searching for keywords such as “FPKD” or “familial paroxysmal kinesigenic dyskinesia,” you can find scientific studies and articles that provide more information about the condition and its genetic causes.
  • Genetic Testing Centers: Genetic testing can be conducted to identify the specific genetic mutations associated with FPKD. Genetic testing centers can provide information on the available tests and procedures.
See also  Hyperlysinemia

In addition, there are a number of patient advocacy groups and resources that provide support and information for individuals and families affected by FPKD:

  • The Genetic and Rare Diseases Information Center: This center provides information about rare diseases, including FPKD. It offers resources, support, and additional references for those seeking more information about the condition.
  • FPKD Support Groups: Support groups exist for individuals and families affected by FPKD. These groups can provide a platform for sharing experiences and information.
  • ClinicalTrials.gov: ClinicalTrials.gov is a database of ongoing clinical trials. It can provide information on any clinical trials that are currently being conducted for FPKD or related conditions.

By accessing these resources and conducting genetic testing, individuals and families affected by FPKD can gather more information about the condition, its genetic causes, and available support options. It is important to consult with healthcare professionals and genetic counselors for personalized guidance and recommendations.

Genetic and Rare Diseases Information Center

Familial paroxysmal kinesigenic dyskinesia (PKD) is a rare genetic condition characterized by episodic and sudden movements. It is also known as paroxysmal kinesigenic choreoathetosis. PKD is associated with altered patterns of muscle control, resulting in involuntary movements triggered by sudden movements or changes in posture. These movements can range in frequency and severity, from a few episodes per day to multiple episodes per hour.

This condition is inherited in an autosomal dominant pattern, which means that a person with the condition has a 50% chance of passing it on to each of their children. PKD is caused by mutations in several genes, including the PRRT2 gene. Additional genes may also be associated with this condition, but further research is needed to fully understand their role.

Diagnosis of PKD is typically based on a clinical evaluation, including a detailed medical history and physical examination. Genetic testing may also be used to confirm the diagnosis and identify the specific gene mutation associated with the condition.

Treatment for PKD may involve medications to help control the frequency and severity of the episodes. Antiepileptic drugs are often prescribed, as they have been shown to be effective in reducing the occurrence of seizures and convulsions. Surgical intervention may be considered in severe cases, but its effectiveness is still being studied.

More scientific research is needed to learn about the causes, clinical characteristics, and inheritance patterns of familial paroxysmal kinesigenic dyskinesia. Studies and clinical trials are ongoing to further understand this rare condition and develop more effective treatments.

For more information about familial paroxysmal kinesigenic dyskinesia, you may find the following resources helpful:

  • The Genetic and Rare Diseases Information Center (GARD) provides information about rare diseases, including PKD. It offers a variety of resources, support, and advocacy for families affected by this condition. (https://rarediseases.info.nih.gov/diseases/10311/familial-paroxysmal-kinesigenic-dyskinesia)
  • The OMIM (Online Mendelian Inheritance in Man) database contains information about genes associated with PKD. It provides detailed information about the genetic and clinical characteristics of this condition. (https://omim.org/)
  • PubMed, a database of scientific articles, can be searched for more research studies and scientific publications on familial paroxysmal kinesigenic dyskinesia. (https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/)

References:

  1. Chen, W. J., Lin, Y., Xiong, Z. Q., Wei, W., Ni, W., Tan, G. H., … & Shen, Y. (2011). Exome sequencing identifies truncating mutations in PRRT2 that cause paroxysmal kinesigenic dyskinesia. Nature genetics, 43(12), 1252-1255.
  2. Gardiner, A. R., Jaffer, F., Dale, R. C., Labrum, R., Erro, R., Meyer, E., … & Lynch, B. (2015). The clinical and genetic heterogeneity of paroxysmal dyskinesias. Brain, 138(12), 3567-3580.
  3. Zeng, S., Zhang, Q., Wang, X., Hu, Z., Huang, Q., Zhao, G., … & Tian, L. (2019). Familial infantile convulsions and paroxysmal kinesigenic dyskinesia syndrome: A rare clinical association caused by mutations in the PRRT2 gene. Experimental and therapeutic medicine, 18(4), 3085-3090.

Patient Support and Advocacy Resources

Patient support and advocacy resources provide valuable information and support for individuals and families affected by familial paroxysmal kinesigenic dyskinesia, a rare clinical condition characterized by episodic altered movements triggered by voluntary movements or other stimuli.

These resources offer a range of services, including information on the clinical pattern, inheritance, and frequency of the condition, as well as scientific articles and studies associated with familial paroxysmal kinesigenic dyskinesia.

Some of the key resources for patient support and advocacy include:

  • Genetic and Rare Diseases Information Center (GARD): GARD provides reliable information on familial paroxysmal kinesigenic dyskinesia, including its causes, inheritance patterns, and available testing options. It also offers links to other resources for learning more about this condition.
  • PubMed: PubMed is a search engine for accessing scientific articles and studies related to familial paroxysmal kinesigenic dyskinesia. It provides citations and abstracts of relevant research papers, offering valuable insights into the genetic and clinical aspects of the condition.
  • OMIM: OMIM is a comprehensive catalog of human genes and genetic disorders. It provides detailed information on the genes associated with familial paroxysmal kinesigenic dyskinesia, helping individuals and families understand the genetic basis of the condition.
  • ClinicalTrials.gov: ClinicalTrials.gov lists ongoing and completed clinical trials related to familial paroxysmal kinesigenic dyskinesia. This resource offers information on potential treatment options and research opportunities for individuals with the condition.

In addition to these resources, patient support and advocacy organizations can also provide emotional support, connections to other families affected by familial paroxysmal kinesigenic dyskinesia, and help navigating the healthcare system.

By utilizing these patient support and advocacy resources, individuals and families affected by familial paroxysmal kinesigenic dyskinesia can gain a better understanding of the condition, access accurate information, and connect with others facing similar challenges.

Research Studies from ClinicalTrialsgov

Research studies on familial paroxysmal kinesigenic dyskinesia (PKD) have been conducted to better understand the condition and its causes. ClinicalTrials.gov, a catalog of clinical studies, provides a comprehensive database of ongoing and completed research studies on various diseases, including PKD.

The studies focus on different aspects of PKD, including the genetic basis of the condition, its inheritance pattern, associated symptoms and conditions, and treatment options. Researchers have identified several genes that are known to be altered in PKD and have explored their role in the development and progression of the disease.

See also  SEPTIN9 gene

One study conducted by Zeng et al. (PubMed PMID: 23240507) investigated the inheritance pattern of PKD in Chinese families. The study found that PKD can be inherited in an autosomal dominant manner, with affected individuals having a 50% chance of passing the condition on to their children.

Another study by Tian et al. (PubMed PMID: 20301436) explored the genetic causes of infantile convulsions and choreoathetosis (ICCA), a rare condition that shares some similarities with PKD. The study identified mutations in the PRRT2 gene as a cause of ICCA and suggested that PKD and ICCA may have overlapping genetic mechanisms.

In addition to genetic studies, research studies have also focused on understanding the frequency and patterns of the paroxysmal episodes in PKD. Shen et al. (PubMed PMID: 29122884) conducted a study to investigate the frequency and characteristics of PKD attacks in a cohort of Chinese patients. The study found that the majority of patients experienced daily attacks and that the attacks were characterized by sudden, involuntary movements.

These studies provide valuable information about the genetic causes, inheritance patterns, and associated conditions of familial paroxysmal kinesigenic dyskinesia. They contribute to the scientific understanding of the condition and may have implications for the development of targeted therapies and support resources for patients and their families.

For more information and resources on familial paroxysmal kinesigenic dyskinesia, visit the Online Mendelian Inheritance in Man (OMIM) database and PubMed, which provide a comprehensive collection of articles and scientific references on rare diseases like PKD.

Catalog of Genes and Diseases from OMIM

The Catalog of Genes and Diseases from OMIM is a valuable resource for information about rare genetic conditions. It provides support for scientific studies, testing, and advocacy for individuals and families affected by these conditions.

Familial paroxysmal kinesigenic dyskinesia (PKD) is one such rare condition cataloged in OMIM. It is characterized by episodic convulsions or altered movements, often triggered by sudden movements. PKD has a genetic basis, with several genes known to be associated with this condition.

One of the genes associated with PKD is PRRT2. Genetic studies have shown that mutations in this gene can cause PKD in affected individuals. Other genes, such as SLC2A1, have also been linked to PKD. These genes can be tested for mutations to confirm a diagnosis of PKD.

The inheritance pattern of PKD is autosomal dominant, meaning that an affected individual has a 50% chance of passing the condition on to their children. In some families, the condition may occur sporadically, without a known family history.

The OMIM catalog provides additional information on PKD, including clinical articles, references, and information on ongoing research studies. It is a valuable resource for healthcare professionals, researchers, and patients seeking more information about this condition.

For more information on PKD, visit the OMIM website or consult the resources provided by advocacy groups, such as the National Organization for Rare Disorders (NORD) or the Genetic and Rare Diseases Information Center (GARD).

Additional information on PKD can also be found in scientific articles published on PubMed. Some relevant articles include:

  1. Zeng et al. “PRRT2 Mutations Cause Paroxysmal Kinesigenic Dyskinesia with Infantile Convulsions.” American Journal of Human Genetics. 2012.
  2. Shen et al. “SLC2A1 Mutations Cause Early-Onset Epileptic Encephalopathy and Seizures with Hypotonia and Choreoathetosis.” Nature Communications. 2019.
  3. Gardiner et al. “Genetic Analysis of Familial Paroxysmal Kinesigenic Dyskinesia.” Journal of Neurology. 2009.

For information on ongoing clinical research studies related to PKD, visit ClinicalTrials.gov and search for “paroxysmal kinesigenic dyskinesia” or related keywords.

Overall, the catalog of genes and diseases from OMIM provides important resources and information for individuals and healthcare professionals interested in understanding and researching rare genetic conditions like familial paroxysmal kinesigenic dyskinesia.

Scientific Articles on PubMed

PubMed is a valuable resource for finding scientific articles related to familial paroxysmal kinesigenic dyskinesia (PKD) and other related diseases. It contains a vast collection of articles from various journals and research papers.

PKD is a rare genetic condition characterized by episodic involuntary movements, often triggered by sudden movements or exercise. It is also known as infantile convulsions and choreoathetosis syndrome.

Research articles on PubMed provide information about the clinical manifestations, genetic causes, inheritance patterns, and testing methods for this condition. They also discuss the frequency of PKD in different populations and the associated genes known to be altered in affected individuals.

PubMed articles on PKD also provide references and citations to additional resources for further reading and learning about this condition. OMIM (Online Mendelian Inheritance in Man) and ClinicalTrials.gov are two other valuable resources for gaining more information on familial PKD.

Some of the key scientific articles on PKD available on PubMed include:

  • “Genetic testing for familial paroxysmal kinesigenic dyskinesia” by Shen et al.
  • “Clinical and genetic studies of paroxysmal kinesigenic dyskinesias in Chinese families” by Tian et al.
  • “Advocacy for familial paroxysmal kinesigenic dyskinesia: Insights from patient advocacy groups” by Gardiner et al.
  • “Altered genes and their role in paroxysmal kinesigenic dyskinesias” by Zeng et al.

These articles provide valuable scientific information on the causes, inheritance patterns, and clinical movements associated with PKD. They also support the need for further research and advocacy for this rare condition.

Overall, PubMed is a valuable resource for researchers, healthcare professionals, and patients to access up-to-date and reliable scientific articles on familial PKD and related conditions.

References

  • Gardiner AR, Bhatia KP, Stamelou M, et al. PRRT2 gene mutations: From paroxysmal dyskinesia to episodic ataxia and hemiplegic migraine. Neurology. 2012 Mar 20;78(12):e147-e149. doi: 10.1212/WNL.0b013e31824c0e43. PubMed PMID: 22431883.
  • Tian WT, Zeng S, Zhang Q, et al. Therapeutic effects of topiramate on paroxysmal kinesigenic dyskinesia with a novel PRRT2 gene mutation. Neurology. 2014 Feb 18;82(7):655-6. doi: 10.1212/WNL.0000000000000170. PubMed PMID: 24550203.
  • OMIM: Familial paroxysmal kinesigenic dyskinesia. Available from: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/omim/128200. Accessed on June 1, 2022.
  • Center for Information and Study on Clinical Research Participation. About Clinical Trials. Available from: https://www.ciscrp.org. Accessed on June 1, 2022.
  • PubMed. Search results for “familial paroxysmal kinesigenic dyskinesia”. Available from: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/?term=familial+paroxysmal+kinesigenic+dyskinesia. Accessed on June 1, 2022.
  • Genetic and Rare Diseases Information Center. Familial paroxysmal kinesigenic dyskinesia. Available from: https://rarediseases.info.nih.gov/ Accessed on June 1, 2022.
  • Support and Advocacy Resources for Familial Paroxysmal Kinesigenic Dyskinesia. Available from: https://www.orphanet.net. Accessed on June 1, 2022.

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